12.1 Biotechnological
Applications in
Agriculture
12.2 Biotechnological
Applications in
Medicine
12.3 Transgenic Animals
12.4 Ethical Issues
Biotechnology, as you would have learnt from the
previous chapter, essentially deals with industrial scale
production of biopharmaceuticals and biologicals using
genetically modified microbes, fungi, plants and animals.
The applications of biotechnology include therapeutics,
diagnostics, genetically modified crops for agriculture,
processed food, bioremediation, waste treatment, and
energy production. Three critical research areas of
biotechnology are:
(i) Providing the best catalyst in the form of improved
organism usually a microbe or pure enzyme.
(ii) Creating optimal conditions through engineering for
a catalyst to act, and
(iii) Downstream processing technologies to purify the
protein/organic compound.
Let us now learn how human beings have used
biotechnology to improve the quality of human life,
especially in the field of food production and health.
12.1 BIOTECHNOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS IN
AGRICULTURE
Let us take a look at the three options that can be thought
for increasing food production
(i) agro-chemical based agriculture;
(ii) organic agriculture; and
(iii) genetically engineered crop-based agriculture.
The Green Revolution succeeded in tripling the food supply but yet
it was not enough to feed the growing human population. Increased yields
have partly been due to the use of improved crop varieties, but mainly
due to the use of better management practices and use of agrochemicals
(fertilisers and pesticides). However, for farmers in the developing world,
agrochemicals are often too expensive, and further increases in yield with
existing varieties are not possible using conventional breeding. Is there
any alternative path that our understanding of genetics can show so that
farmers may obtain maximum yield from their fields? Is there a way to
minimise the use of fertilisers and chemicals so that their harmful effects
on the environment are reduced? Use of genetically modified crops is a
possible solution.
Plants, bacteria, fungi and animals whose genes have been altered by
manipulation are called Genetically Modified Organisms (GMO). GM
plants have been useful in many ways. Genetic modification has:
(i) made crops more tolerant to abiotic stresses (cold, drought, salt, heat).
(ii) reduced reliance on chemical pesticides (pest-resistant crops).
(iii) helped to reduce post harvest losses.
(iv) increased efficiency of mineral usage by plants (this prevents early
exhaustion of fertility of soil).
(v) enhanced nutritional value of food, e.g., golden rice, i.e., Vitamin ‘A’
enriched rice.
In addition to these uses, GM has been used to create tailor-made
plants to supply alternative resources to industries, in the form of starches,
fuels and pharmaceuticals.
Some of the applications of biotechnology in agriculture that you will
study in detail are the production of pest resistant plants, which could
decrease the amount of pesticide used. Bt toxin is produced by a
bacterium called Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt for short). Bt toxin gene has
been cloned from the bacteria and been expressed in plants to provide
resistance to insects without the need for insecticides; in effect created a
bio-pesticide. Examples are Bt cotton, Bt corn, rice, tomato, potato and
soyabean etc.
Bt Cotton: Some strains of Bacillus thuringiensis produce proteins that
kill certain insects such as lepidopterans (tobacco budworm, armyworm),
coleopterans (beetles) and dipterans (flies, mosquitoes). B. thuringiensis
forms protein crystals during a particular phase of their growth. These
crystals contain a toxic insecticidal protein. Why does this toxin not kill
the Bacillus? Actually, the Bt toxin protein exist as inactive protoxins but
once an insect ingest the inactive toxin, it is converted into an active form
of toxin due to the alkaline pH of the gut which solubilise the crystals.
The activated toxin binds to the surface of midgut epithelial cells and
create pores that cause cell swelling and lysis and eventually cause death
of the insect.
Specific Bt toxin genes were isolated from Bacillus thuringiensis and
incorporated into the several crop plants such as cotton (Figure 12.1).
The choice of genes depends upon the crop and the targeted pest, as
most Bt toxins are insect-group specific. The toxin is coded by a gene
cryIAc named cry. There are a number of them, for example, the proteins
encoded by the genes cryIAc and cryIIAb control the cotton bollworms,
that of cryIAb controls corn borer.
Pest Resistant Plants: Several nematodes parasitise a wide variety of
plants and animals including human beings. A nematode Meloidegyne
incognitia infects the roots of tobacco plants and causes a great reduction
in yield. A novel strategy was adopted to prevent this infestation which
was based on the process of RNA interference (RNAi). RNAi takes place
in all eukaryotic organisms as a method of cellular defense. This method
involves silencing of a specific mRNA due to a complementary dsRNA
molecule that binds to and prevents translation of the mRNA (silencing).
The source of this complementary RNA could be from an infection by
viruses having RNA genomes or mobile genetic elements (transposons)
that replicate via an RNA intermediate.
Using Agrobacterium vectors, nematode-specific genes were
introduced into the host plant (Figure 12.2). The introduction of DNA
was such that it produced both sense and anti-sense RNA in the host
cells. These two RNA’s being complementary to each other formed a double
stranded (dsRNA) that initiated RNAi and thus, silenced the specific mRNA
of the nematode. The consequence was that the parasite could not survive
in a transgenic host expressing specific interfering RNA. The transgenic
plant therefore got itself protected from the parasite (Figure 12.2).
of the nematode. The consequence was that the parasite could not survive
in a transgenic host expressing specific interfering RNA. The transgenic
plant therefore got itself protected from the parasite (Figure 12.2).
12.2 BIOTECHNOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS IN MEDICINE
The recombinant DNA technological processes have made immense impact
in the area of healthcare by enabling mass production of safe and more
effective therapeutic drugs. Further, the recombinant therapeutics do not
induce unwanted immunological responses as is common in case of
similar products isolated from non-human sources. At present, about
30 recombinant therapeutics have been approved for human-use the
world over. In India, 12 of these are presently being marketed.
12.2.1 Genetically Engineered Insulin
Management of adult-onset diabetes is possible by taking insulin at
regular time intervals. What would a diabetic patient do if enough
human-insulin was not available? If you discuss this, you would soon
realise that one would have to isolate and use insulin from other animals.
Would the insulin isolated from other animals be just as effective as
that secreted by the human body itself and would it not elicit an immune
response in the human body? Now, imagine if bacterium were available
that could make human insulin. Suddenly the whole process becomes
so simple. You can easily grow a large quantity of the bacteria and make
as much insulin as you need.
Think about whether insulin can be orally administered to diabetic
people or not. Why?
Insulin used for diabetes was earlier extracted from
pancreas of slaughtered cattle and pigs. Insulin from an
animal source, though caused some patients to develop
allergy or other types of reactions to the foreign
protein. Insulin consists of two short polypeptide
chains: chain A and chain B, that are linked together by
disulphide bridges (Figure 12.3). In mammals, including
humans, insulin is synthesised as a pro-hormone (like a
pro-enzyme, the pro-hormone also needs to be processed
before it becomes a fully mature and functional hormone)
which contains an extra stretch called the C peptide.
This C peptide is not present in the mature insulin and is
removed during maturation into insulin.The main
challenge for production of insulin using rDNA techniques
was getting insulin assembled into a mature form. In
1983, Eli Lilly an American company prepared two DNA sequences
corresponding to A and B, chains of human insulin and introduced them
in plasmids of E. coli to produce insulin chains. Chains A and B were
produced separately, extracted and combined by creating disulfide bonds
to form human insulin.
12.2.2 Gene Therapy
If a person is born with a hereditary disease, can a corrective therapy
be taken for such a disease? Gene therapy is an attempt to do this.
Gene therapy is a collection of methods that allows correction of a
gene defect that has been diagnosed in a child/embryo. Here genes
are inserted into a person’s cells and tissues to treat a disease.
Correction of a genetic defect involves delivery of a normal gene into
the individual or embryo to take over the function of and compensate
for the non-functional gene.
The first clinical gene therapy was given in 1990 to a 4-year old girl
with adenosine deaminase (ADA) deficiency. This enzyme is crucial for
the immune system to function. The disorder is caused due to the deletion
of the gene for adenosine deaminase. In some children ADA deficiency
can be cured by bone marrow transplantation; in others it can be treated
by enzyme replacement therapy, in which functional ADA is given to the
patient by injection. But the problem with both of these approaches that
they are not completely curative. As a first step towards gene therapy,
lymphocytes from the blood of the patient are grown in a culture outside
the body. A functional ADA cDNA (using a retroviral vector) is then
introduced into these lymphocytes, which are subsequently returned to
the patient. However, as these cells are not immortal, the patient requires
periodic infusion of such genetically engineered lymphocytes. However, if
the gene isolate from marrow cells producing ADA is introduced into cells
at early embryonic stages, it could be a permanent cure.
12.2.3 Molecular Diagnosis
You know that for effective treatment of a disease, early diagnosis and
understanding its pathophysiology is very important. Using conventional
methods of diagnosis (serum and urine analysis, etc.) early detection is
not possible. Recombinant DNA technology, Polymerase Chain Reaction
(PCR) and Enzyme Linked Immuno-sorbent Assay (ELISA) are some of
the techniques that serve the purpose of early diagnosis.
Presence of a pathogen (bacteria, viruses, etc.) is normally suspected
only when the pathogen has produced a disease symptom. By this time
the concentration of pathogen is already very high in the body. However,
very low concentration of a bacteria or virus (at a time when the symptoms
of the disease are not yet visible) can be detected by amplification of their
nucleic acid by PCR. Can you explain how PCR can detect very low
amounts of DNA? PCR is now routinely used to detect HIV in suspected
AIDS patients. It is being used to detect mutations in genes in suspected
cancer patients too. It is a powerful techqnique to identify many other
genetic disorders.
A single stranded DNA or RNA, tagged with a radioactive molecule
(probe) is allowed to hybridise to its complementary DNA in a clone of
cells followed by detection using autoradiography. The clone having the
mutated gene will hence not appear on the photographic film, because
the probe will not have complementarity with the mutated gene.
ELISA is based on the principle of antigen-antibody interaction.
Infection by pathogen can be detected by the presence of antigens
(proteins, glycoproteins, etc.) or by detecting the antibodies synthesised
against the pathogen.
12.3 TRANSGENIC ANIMALS
Animals that have had their DNA manipulated to possess and express an
extra (foreign) gene are known as transgenic animals. Transgenic rats,
rabbits, pigs, sheep, cows and fish have been produced, although over
95 per cent of all existing transgenic animals are mice. Why are these
animals being produced? How can man benefit from such modifications?
Let us try and explore some of the common reasons:
(i) Normal physiology and development: Transgenic animals can
be specifically designed to allow the study of how genes are
regulated, and how they affect the normal functions of the body
and its development, e.g., study of complex factors involved in growth
such as insulin-like growth factor. By introducing genes from other
species that alter the formation of this factor and studying the
biological effects that result, information is obtained about the
biological role of the factor in the body.
(ii) Study of disease: Many transgenic animals are designed to increase
our understanding of how genes contribute to the development of
disease. These are specially made to serve as models for human
diseases so that investigation of new treatments for diseases is made
possible. Today transgenic models exist for many human diseases
such as cancer, cystic fibrosis, rheumatoid arthritis and Alzheimer’s.
(iii) Biological products: Medicines required to treat certain human
diseases can contain biological products, but such products are
often expensive to make. Transgenic animals that produce useful
biological products can be created by the introduction of the portion
of DNA (or genes) which codes for a particular product such as
human protein (α-1-antitrypsin) used to treat emphysema. Similar
attempts are being made for treatment of phenylketonuria (PKU)
and cystic fibrosis. In 1997, the first transgenic cow, Rosie, produced
human protein-enriched milk (2.4 grams per litre). The milk
contained the human alpha-lactalbumin and was nutritionally a
more balanced product for human babies than natural cow-milk.
(iv) Vaccine safety: Transgenic mice are being developed for use in
testing the safety of vaccines before they are used on humans.
Transgenic mice are being used to test the safety of the polio vaccine.
If successful and found to be reliable, they could replace the use of
monkeys to test the safety of batches of the vaccine.
(v) Chemical safety testing: This is known as toxicity/safety testing.
The procedure is the same as that used for testing toxicity of drugs.
Transgenic animals are made that carry genes which make them more
sensitive to toxic substances than non-transgenic animals. They are
then exposed to the toxic substances and the effects studied. Toxicity
testing in such animals will allow us to obtain results in less time.
12.4 ETHICAL ISSUES
The manipulation of living organisms by the human race cannot go on
any further, without regulation. Some ethical standards are required to
evaluate the morality of all human activities that might help or harm living
organisms.
Going beyond the morality of such issues, the biological significance
of such things is also important. Genetic modification of organisms can
have unpredicatable results when such organisms are introduced into
the ecosystem.
Therefore, the Indian Government has set up organisations such as
GEAC (Genetic Engineering Approval Committee), which will make
decisions regarding the validity of GM research and the safety of
introducing GM-organisms for public services.
The modification/usage of living organisms for public services (as food
and medicine sources, for example) has also created problems with patents
granted for the same.
There is growing public anger that certain companies are being
granted patents for products and technologies that make use of the
genetic materials, plants and other biological resources that have long
been identified, developed and used by farmers and indigenous people
of a specific region/country.
Rice is an important food grain, the presence of which goes back
thousands of years in Asia’s agricultural history. There are an estimated
200,000 varieties of rice in India alone. The diversity of rice in India is
one of the richest in the world. Basmati rice is distinct for its unique
aroma and flavour and 27 documented varieties of Basmati are grown
in India. There is reference to Basmati in ancient texts, folklore and
poetry, as it has been grown for centuries. In 1997, an American
company got patent rights on Basmati rice through the US Patent and
Trademark Office. This allowed the company to sell a ‘new’ variety of
Basmati, in the US and abroad. This ‘new’ variety of Basmati had actually
been derived from Indian farmer’s varieties. Indian Basmati was crossed
with semi-dwarf varieties and claimed as an invention or a novelty. The
patent extends to functional equivalents, implying that other people
selling Basmati rice could be restricted by the patent. Several attempts
have also been made to patent uses, products and processes based on
Indian traditional herbal medicines, e.g., turmeric neem. If we are not
vigilant and we do not immediately counter these patent applications,
other countries/individuals may encash on our rich legacy and we may
not be able to do anything about it.
Biopiracy is the term used to refer to the use of bio-resources by
multinational companies and other organisations without proper
authorisation from the countries and people concerned without
compensatory payment.
Most of the industrialised nations are rich financially but poor in
biodiversity and traditional knowledge. In contrast the developing and
the underdeveloped world is rich in biodiversity and traditional
knowledge related to bio-resources. Traditional knowledge related to
bio-resources can be exploited to develop modern applications and can
also be used to save time, effort and expenditure during their
commercialisation.
There has been growing realisation of the injustice, inadequate
compensation and benefit sharing between developed and developing
countries. Therefore, some nations are developing laws to prevent such
unauthorised exploitation of their bio-resources and traditional
knowledge.
The Indian Parliament has recently cleared the second amendment
of the Indian Patents Bill, that takes such issues into consideration,
including patent terms emergency provisions and research and
development initiative.
SUMMARY
Biotechnology has given to humans several useful products by using
microbes, plant, animals and their metabolic machinery. Recombinant
DNA technology has made it possible to engineer microbes, plants
and animals such that they have novel capabilities. Genetically
Modified Organisms have been created by using methods other than
natural methods to transfer one or more genes from one organism to
another, generally using techniques such as recombinant DNA
technology.
GM plants have been useful in increasing crop yields, reduce post-
harvest losses and make crops more tolerant of stresses. There are
several GM crop plants with improved nutritional value of foods and
reduced the reliance on chemical pesticides (pest-resistant crops).
Recombinant DNA technological processes have made immense
impact in the area of healthcare by enabling mass production of safe
and more effective therapeutics. Since the recombinant therapeutics
are identical to human proteins, they do not induce unwanted
immunological responses and are free from risk of infection as was
observed in case of similar products isolated from non-human sources.
Human insulin is made in bacteria yet its structure is absolutely
identical to that of the natural molecule.
Transgenic animals are also used to understand how genes
contribute to the development of a disease by serving as models for
human diseases, such as cancer, cystic fibrosis, rheumatoid arthritis
and Alzheimer’s.
Gene therapy is the insertion of genes into an individual’s cells
and tissues to treat diseases especially hereditary diseases. It does
so by replacing a defective mutant allele with a functional one or
gene targeting which involves gene amplification. Viruses that attack
their hosts and introduce their genetic material into the host cell as
part of their replication cycle are used as vectors to transfer healthy
genes or more recently portions of genes.
The current interest in the manipulation of microbes, plants, and
animals has raised serious ethical questions.
EXERCISES
- Crystals of Bt toxin produced by some bacteria do not kill the bacteria
themselves because –
(a) bacteria are resistant to the toxin
(b) toxin is immature;
(c) toxin is inactive;
(d) bacteria encloses toxin in a special sac. - What are transgenic bacteria? Illustrate using any one example.
- Compare and contrast the advantages and disadvantages of production
of genetically modified crops.
- What are Cry proteins? Name an organism that produce it. How has
man exploited this protein to his benefit? - What is gene therapy? Illustrate using the example of adenosine
deaminase (ADA) deficiency. - Digrammatically represent the experimental steps in cloning and
expressing an human gene (say the gene for growth hormone) into a
bacterium like E. coli ? - Can you suggest a method to remove oil (hydrocarbon) from seeds based
on your understanding of rDNA technology and chemistry of oil? - Find out from internet what is golden rice.
- Does our blood have proteases and nucleases?
- Consult internet and find out how to make orally active protein
pharmaceutical. What is the major problem to be encountered?
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