14.1 Ecosystem–Structure
and Function
14.2. Productivity
14.3 Decomposition
14.4 Energy Flow
14.5 Ecological Pyramids
14.6 Ecological Succession
14.7 Nutrient Cycling
14.8 Ecosystem Services
An ecosystem can be visualised as a functional unit of
nature, where living organisms interact among themselves
and also with the surrounding physical environment.
Ecosystem varies greatly in size from a small pond to a
large forest or a sea. Many ecologists regard the entire
biosphere as a global ecosystem, as a composite of all
local ecosystems on Earth. Since this system is too much
big and complex to be studied at one time, it is convenient
to divide it into two basic categories, namely the
terrestrial and the aquatic. Forest, grassland and desert
are some examples of terrestrial ecosystems; pond, lake,
wetland, river and estuary are some examples of aquatic
ecosystems. Crop fields and an aquarium may also be
considered as man-made ecosystems.
We will first look at the structure of the ecosystem, in
order to appreciate the input (productivity), transfer of
energy (food chain/web, nutrient cycling) and the output
(degradation and energy loss). We will also look at the
relationships – cycles, chains, webs – that are created as
a result of these energy flows within the system and their
inter- relationship.
14.1 ECOSYSTEM – STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
In chapter 13, you have looked at the various components of the
environment- abiotic and biotic. You studied how the individual biotic
and abiotic factors affected each other and their surrounding. Let us look
at these components in a more integrated manner and see how the flow of
energy takes place within these components of the ecosystem.
Interaction of biotic and abiotic components result in a physical
structure that is characteristic for each type of ecosystem. Identification
and enumeration of plant and animal species of an ecosystem gives its
species composition. Vertical distribution of different species occupying
different levels is called stratification. For example, trees occupy top
vertical strata or layer of a forest, shrubs the second and herbs and grasses
occupy the bottom layers.
The components of the ecosystem are seen to function as a unit when
you consider the following aspects:
(i) Productivity;
(ii) Decomposition;
(iii) Energy flow; and
(iv) Nutrient cycling.
To understand the ethos of an aquatic ecosystem let us take a small
pond as an example. This is fairly a self-sustainable unit and rather simple
example that explain even the complex interactions that exist in an aquatic
ecosystem. A pond is a shallow water body in which all the above
mentioned four basic components of an ecosystem are well exhibited.
The abiotic component is the water with all the dissolved inorganic and
organic substances and the rich soil deposit at the bottom of the pond.
The solar input, the cycle of temperature, day-length and other climatic
conditions regulate the rate of function of the entire pond. The autotrophic
components include the phytoplankton, some algae and the floating,
submerged and marginal plants found at the edges. The consumers are
represented by the zooplankton, the free swimming and bottom dwelling
forms. The decomposers are the fungi, bacteria and flagellates especially
abundant in the bottom of the pond. This system performs all the functions
of any ecosystem and of the biosphere as a whole, i.e., conversion of
inorganic into organic material with the help of the radiant energy of the
sun by the autotrophs; consumption of the autotrophs by heterotrophs;
decomposition and mineralisation of the dead matter to release them back
for reuse by the autotrophs, these event are repeated over and over again.
There is unidirectional movement of energy towards the higher trophic
levels and its dissipation and loss as heat to the environment.
14.2. PRODUCTIVITY
A constant input of solar energy is the basic requirement for any ecosystem
to function and sustain. Primary production is defined as the amount of
biomass or organic matter produced per unit area over a time period by
plants during photosynthesis. It is expressed in terms of weight (gm^–2) or
energy (kcal m^–2). The rate of biomass production is called productivity.
It is expressed in terms of gm^–2
yr^–1 or (kcal m^–2) yr^–1 to compare the
productivity of different ecosystems. It can be divided into gross primary
productivity (GPP) and net primary productivity (NPP). Gross primary
productivity of an ecosystem is the rate of production of organic matter
during photosynthesis. A considerable amount of GPP is utilised by plants
in respiration. Gross primary productivity minus respiration losses (R),
is the net primary productivity (NPP).
GPP – R = NPP
Net primary productivity is the available biomass for the consumption
to heterotrophs (herbiviores and decomposers). Secondary productivity
is defined as the rate of formation of new organic matter by
consumers.
Primary productivity depends on the plant species inhabiting a
particular area. It also depends on a variety of environmental factors,
availability of nutrients and photosynthetic capacity of plants. Therefore,
it varies in different types of ecosystems. The annual net primary
productivity of the whole biosphere is approximately 170 billion tons
(dry weight) of organic matter. Of this, despite occupying about 70 per
cent of the surface, the productivity of the oceans are only 55 billion tons.
Rest of course, is on land. Discuss the main reason for the low
productivity of ocean with your teacher.
14.3 DECOMPOSITION
You may have heard of the earthworm being referred to as the farmer’s
‘friend’. This is so because they help in the breakdown of complex organic
matter as well as in loosening of the soil. Similarly, decomposers break
down complex organic matter into inorganic substances like carbon
dioxide, water and nutrients and the process is called decomposition.
Dead plant remains such as leaves, bark, flowers and dead remains of
animals, including fecal matter, constitute detritus, which is the raw
material for decomposition. The important steps in the process of
decomposition are fragmentation, leaching, catabolism, humification and
mineralisation.
Detritivores (e.g., earthworm) break down detritus into smaller particles.
This process is called fragmentation. By the process of leaching, water-
soluble inorganic nutrients go down into the soil horizon and get precipitated
as unavailable salts. Bacterial and fungal enzymes degrade detritus into
simpler inorganic substances. This process is called as catabolism.
It is important to note that all the above steps in decomposition operate
simultaneously on the detritus (Figure 14.1). Humification and
mineralisation occur during decomposition in the soil. Humification leads
to accumulation of a dark coloured amorphous substance called humus
that is highly resistant to microbial action and undergoes decomposition
at an extremely slow rate. Being colloidal in nature it serves as a reservoir
of nutrients. The humus is further degraded by some microbes and release
of inorganic nutrients occur by the process known as mineralisation.
Decomposition is largely an oxygen-requiring process. The rate of
decomposition is controlled by chemical composition of detritus and
climatic factors. In a particular climatic condition, decomposition rate
is slower if detritus is rich in lignin and chitin, and quicker, if detritus is
rich in nitrogen and water-soluble substances like sugars. Temperature
and soil moisture are the most important climatic factors that regulate
decomposition through their effects on the activities of soil microbes.
Warm and moist environment favour decomposition whereas low
temperature and anaerobiosis inhibit decomposition resulting in build
up of organic materials.
14.4 ENERGY FLOW
Except for the deep sea hydro-thermal ecosystem, sun is the only source
of energy for all ecosystems on Earth. Of the incident solar radiation less
than 50 per cent of it is photosynthetically active radiation (PAR). We
know that plants and photosynthetic bacteria (autotrophs), fix Sun’s
radiant energy to make food from simple inorganic materials. Plants
capture only 2-10 per cent of the PAR and this small amount of energy
sustains the entire living world. So, it is very important to know how the
solar energy captured by plants flows through different organisms of an
ecosystem. All organisms are dependent for their food on producers, either
directly or indirectly. So you find unidirectional flow of energy from the
sun to producers and then to consumers. Is this in keeping with the first
law of thermodynamics?
Further, ecosystems are not exempt from the Second Law of
thermodynamics. They need a constant supply of energy to synthesise
the molecules they require, to counteract the universal tendency toward
increasing disorderliness.
The green plant in the ecosystem are called producers. In a terrestrial
ecosystem, major producers are herbaceous and woody plants. Likewise,
producers in an aquatic ecosystem are various species like phytoplankton,
algae and higher plants.
You have read about the food chains and webs that exist in nature.
Starting from the plants (or producers) food chains or rather webs are
formed such that an animal feeds on a plant or on another animal and in
turn is food for another. The chain or web is formed because of this
interdependency. No energy that is trapped into an organism remains in
it for ever. The energy trapped by the producer, hence, is either passed on
to a consumer or the organism dies. Death of organism is the beginning
of the detritus food chain/web.
All animals depend on plants (directly or indirectly) for their food needs.
They are hence called consumers and also heterotrophs. If they feed on
the producers, the plants, they are called primary consumers, and if the
animals eat other animals which in turn eat the plants (or their produce)
they are called secondary consumers. Likewise, you could have tertiary
consumers too. Obviously the primary consumers will be herbivores.
Some common herbivores are insects, birds and mammals in terrestrial
ecosystem and molluscs in aquatic ecosystem.
The consumers that feed on these herbivores are carnivores, or more
correctly primary carnivores (though secondary consumers). Those
animals that depend on the primary carnivores for food are labelled
secondary carnivores. A simple grazing food chain (GFC) is depicted
below:
The detritus food chain (DFC) begins with dead organic matter. It is
made up of decomposers which are heterotrophic organisms, mainly
fungi and bacteria. They meet their energy and nutrient requirements by
degrading dead organic matter or detritus. These are also known as
saprotrophs (sapro: to decompose). Decomposers secrete digestive
enzymes that breakdown dead and waste materials into simple, inorganic
materials, which are subsequently absorbed by them.
In an aquatic ecosystem, GFC is the major conduit for energy flow.
As against this, in a terrestrial ecosystem, a much larger fraction of energy
flows through the detritus food chain than through the GFC. Detritus
food chain may be connected with the grazing food chain at some levels:
some of the organisms of DFC are prey to the GFC animals, and in a natural
ecosystem, some animals like cockroaches, crows, etc., are omnivores.
These natural interconnection of food chains make it a food web. How
would you classify human beings!
Organisms occupy a place in the natural surroundings or in a
community according to their feeding relationship with other organisms.
Based on the source of their nutrition or food, organisms occupy a specific
place in the food chain that is known as their trophic level. Producers
belong to the first trophic level, herbivores (primary consumer) to the
second and carnivores (secondary consumer) to the third (Figure 14.2).
The important point to note is that the amount of energy decreases at
successive trophic levels. When any organism dies it is converted to
detritus or dead biomass that serves as an energy source for decomposers.
Organisms at each trophic level depend on those at the lower trophic level
for their energy demands.
Each trophic level has a certain mass of living material at a particular
time called as the standing crop. The standing crop is measured as the
mass of living organisms (biomass) or the number in a unit area. The
biomass of a species is expressed in terms of fresh or dry weight.
Measurement of biomass in terms of dry weight is more accurate. Why?
The number of trophic levels in the grazing food chain is restricted as
the transfer of energy follows 10 per cent law – only 10 per cent of the
energy is transferred to each trophic level from the lower trophic level. In
nature, it is possible to have so many levels – producer, herbivore, primary
carnivore, secondary carnivore in the grazing food chain (Figure 14.3) .
Do you think there is any such limitation in a detritus food chain?
14.5 ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS
You must be familiar with the shape of a pyramid. The base of a pyramid
is broad and it narrows towards the apex. One gets a similar shape,
whether you express the food or energy relationship between organisms
at different trophic levels. This, relationship is expressed in terms of
number, biomass or energy. The base of each pyramid represents the
producers or the first trophic level while the apex represents tertiary or
top level consumer. The three types of ecological pyramids that are usually
studied are (a) pyramid of number; (b) pyramid of biomass and (c) pyramid
of energy. For detail (see Figure 14.4 a, b, c and d).
Any calculations of energy content, biomass or numbers, has to include
all organisms at that trophic level. No generalisations we make will be
true if we take only a few individuals at any trophic level into account.
Also a given organism may occupy more than one trophic level
simultaneously. One must remember that the trophic level represents a
functional level, not a species as such. A given species may occupy more
than one trophic level in the same ecosystem at the same time; for example,
a sparrow is a primary consumer when it eats seeds, fruits, peas, and a
secondary consumer when it eats insects and worms. Can you work out
how many trophic levels human beings function at in a food chain?
In most ecosystems, all the pyramids, of number, of energy and
biomass are upright, i.e., producers are more in number and biomass
than the herbivores, and herbivores are more in number and biomass
than the carnivores. Also energy at a lower trophic level is always more
than at a higher level.
There are exceptions to this generalisation: If you were to count the
number of insects feeding on a big tree what kind of pyramid would you
get? Now add an estimate of the number of small birds depending on the
insects, as also the number of larger birds eating the smaller. Draw the
shape you would get.
The pyramid of biomass in sea is generally inverted because the
biomass of fishes far exceeds that of phytoplankton. Isn’t that a paradox?
How would you explain this?
Pyramid of energy is always upright, can never be inverted, because
when energy flows from a particular trophic level to the next trophic level,
some energy is always lost as heat at each step. Each bar in the energy
pyramid indicates the amount of energy present at each trophic level in a
given time or annually per unit area.
However, there are certain limitations of ecological pyramids such as
it does not take into account the same species belonging to two or more
trophic levels. It assumes a simple food chain, something that almost
never exists in nature; it does not accommodate a food web. Moreover,
saprophytes are not given any place in ecological pyramids even though
they play a vital role in the ecosystem.
14.6 ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION
You have learnt in Chapter 13, the characteristics of population and
community and also their response to environment and how such
responses vary from an individual response. Let us examine another aspect
of community response to environment over time.
An important characteristic of all communities is that their
composition and structure constantly change in response to the changing
environmental conditions. This change is orderly and sequential, parallel
with the changes in the physical environment. These changes lead finally
to a community that is in near equilibrium with the environment and
that is called a climax community. The gradual and fairly predictable
change in the species composition of a given area is called ecological
succession. During succession some species colonise an area and their
population become more numerous whereas populations of other species
decline and even disappear.
The entire sequence of communities that successively change in a
given area are called sere(s). The individual transitional communities are
termed seral stages or seral communities. In the successive seral stages
there is a change in the diversity of species of organisms, increase in the
number of species and organisms as well as an increase in the total biomass.
The present day communities in the world have come to be because
of succession that has occurred over millions of years since life started on
earth. Actually succession and evolution would have been parallel
processes at that time.
Succession is hence a process that starts in an area where no living
organisms are there – these could be areas where no living organisms
ever existed, say bare rock; or in areas that somehow, lost all the living
organisms that existed there. The former is called primary succession,
while the latter is termed secondary succession.
Examples of areas where primary succession occurs are newly cooled
lava, bare rock, newly created pond or reservoir. The establishment of a
new biotic community is generally slow. Before a biotic community of
diverse organisms can become established, there must be soil. Depending
mostly on the climate, it takes natural processes several hundred to several
thousand years to produce fertile soil on bare rock.
Secondary succession begins in areas where natural biotic
communities have been destroyed such as in abandoned farm lands,
burned or cut forests, lands that have been flooded. Since some soil or
sediment is present, succession is faster than primary succession.
Description of ecological succession usually focuses on changes in
vegetation. However, these vegetational changes in turn affect food and
shelter for various types of animals. Thus, as succession proceeds, the
numbers and types of animals and decomposers also change.
At any time during primary or secondary succession, natural or
human induced disturbances (fire, deforestation, etc.), can convert a
particular seral stage of succession to an earlier stage. Also such
disturbances create new conditions that encourage some species and
discourage or eliminate other species.
14.6.1 Succession of Plants
Based on the nature of the habitat – whether it is water (or very wet areas)
or it is on very dry areas – succession of plants is called hydrarch or
xerarch, respectively. Hydrarch succession takes place in wet areas and
the successional series progress from hydric to the mesic conditions. As
against this, xerarch succession takes place in dry areas and the series
progress from xeric to mesic conditions. Hence, both hydrarch and xerarch
successions lead to medium water conditions (mesic) – neither too dry
(xeric) nor too wet (hydric).
The species that invade a bare area are called pioneer species. In
primary succession on rocks these are usually lichens which are able to
secrete acids to dissolve rock, helping in weathering and soil formation.
These later pave way to some very small plants like bryophytes, which
are able to take hold in the small amount of soil. They are, with time,
succeeded by higher plants, and after several more stages, ultimately a
stable climax forest community is formed. The climax community remains
stable as long as the environment remains unchanged. With time the
xerophytic habitat gets converted into a mesophytic one.
In primary succession in water, the pioneers are the small
phytoplanktons,which are replaced with time by rooted-submerged plants,
rooted-floating angiosperms followed by free-floating plants, then reed-
swamp, marsh-meadow, scrub and finally the trees. The climax again would
be a forest. With time the water body is converted into land (Figure 14.5).
In secondary succession the species that invade depend on the
condition of the soil, availability of water, the environment as also the
seeds or other propagules present. Since soil is already there, the rate of
succession is much faster and hence, climax is also reached more quickly.
What is important to understand is that succession, particularly
primary succession, is a very slow process, taking maybe thousands of
years for the climax to be reached. Another important fact is to understand
that all succession whether taking place in water or on land, proceeds to
a similar climax community – the mesic.
14.7 NUTRIENT CYCLING
You have studied in Class XI that organisms need a constant supply of
nutrients to grow, reproduce and regulate various body functions. The
amount of nutrients, such as carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, calcium, etc.,
present in the soil at any given time, is referred to as the standing state. It
varies in different kinds of ecosystems and also on a seasonal basis.
What is important is to appreciate that nutrients which are never lost
from the ecosystems, rather they are recycled time and again indefinitely.
The movement of nutrient elements through the various components of
an ecosystem is called nutrient cycling. Another name of nutrient cycling
is biogeochemical cycles (bio: living organism, geo: rocks, air, water).
Nutrient cycles are of two types: (a) gaseous and (b) sedimentary. The
reservoir for gaseous type of nutrient cycle (e.g., nitrogen, carbon cycle)
exists in the atmosphere and for the sedimentary cycle (e.g., sulphur and
phosphorus cycle), the reservoir is located in Earth’s crust. Environmental
factors, e.g., soil, moisture, pH, temperature, etc., regulate the rate of
release of nutrients into the atmosphere. The function of the reservoir is
to meet with the deficit which occurs due to imbalance in the rate of influx
and efflux.
You have made a detailed study of nitrogen cycle in class XI. Here we
discuss carbon and phosphorus cycles.
14.7.1 Ecosystem – Carbon Cycle
When you study the composition of living organisms, carbon constitutes
49 per cent of dry weight of organisms and is next only to water. If we
look at the total quantity of global carbon, we find that 71 per cent carbon
is found dissolved in oceans. This oceanic reservoir regulates the amount
of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere (Figure 14.6). Do you know that the
atmosphere only contains about 1per cent of total global carbon?
Fossil fuel also represent a reservoir of carbon. Carbon cycling occurs
through atmosphere, ocean and through living and dead organisms.
According to one estimate 4 × 1013 kg of carbon is fixed annually in the
biosphere through photosynthesis. A considerable amount of carbon
returns to the atmosphere as CO2
through respiratory activities of the
producers and consumers. Decomposers also contribute substantially
to CO2
pool by their processing of waste materials and dead organic matter
of land or oceans. Some amount of the fixed carbon is lost to sediments
and removed from circulation. Burning of wood, forest fire and combustion
of organic matter, fossil fuel, volcanic activity are additional sources for
releasing CO2
in the atmosphere.
Human activities have significantly influenced the carbon cycle. Rapid
deforestation and massive burning of fossil fuel for energy and transport
have significantly increased the rate of release of carbon dioxide into the
atmosphere (see greenhouse effect in Chapter 16).
14.7.2 Ecosystem – Phosphorus Cycle
Phosphorus is a major constituent of biological membranes, nucleic acids
and cellular energy transfer systems. Many animals also need large
quantities of this element to make shells, bones and teeth. The natural
reservoir of phosphorus is rock, which contains phosphorus in the form
of phosphates. When rocks are weathered, minute amounts of these
phosphates dissolve in soil solution and are absorbed by the roots of the
plants (Figure 14.7). Herbivores and other animals obtain this element
from plants. The waste products and the dead organisms are decomposed
by phosphate-solubilising bacteria releasing phosphorus. Unlike carbon
cycle, there is no respiratory release of phosphorus into atmosphere. Can
you differentiate between the carbon and the phosphorus cycle?
The other two major and important differences between carbon and
phosphorus cycle are firstly, atmospheric inputs of phosphorus through
rainfall are much smaller than carbon inputs, and, secondly, gaseous
exchanges of phosphorus between organism and environment are
negligible.
14.8 ECOSYSTEM SERVICES
Healthy ecosystems are the base for a wide range of economic,
environmental and aesthetic goods and services. The products of
ecosystem processes are named as ecosystem services, for example,
healthy forest ecosystems purify air and water, mitigate droughts and
floods, cycle nutrients, generate fertile soils, provide wildlife habitat,
maintain biodiversity, pollinate crops, provide storage site for carbon
and also provide aesthetic, cultural and spiritual values. Though value
of such services of biodiversity is difficult to determine, it seems
reasonable to think that biodiversity should carry a hefty price tag.
Robert Constanza and his colleagues have very recently tried to
put price tags on nature’s life-support services. Researchers have put
an average price tag of US $ 33 trillion a year on these fundamental
ecosystems services, which are largely taken for granted because they
are free. This is nearly twice the value of the global gross national
product GNP which is (US $ 18 trillion).
Out of the total cost of various ecosystem services, the soil
formation accounts for about 50 per cent, and contributions of other
services like recreation and nutrient cycling, are less than 10 per
cent each. The cost of climate regulation and habitat for wildlife are
about 6 per cent each.
SUMMARY
An ecosystem is a structural and functional unit of nature and it
comprises abiotic and biotic components. Abiotic components are
inorganic materials- air, water and soil, whereas biotic components
are producers, consumers and decomposers. Each ecosystem has
characteristic physical structure resulting from interaction amongst
abiotic and biotic components. Species composition and stratification
are the two main structural features of an ecosystem. Based on source
of nutrition every organism occupies a place in an ecosystem.
Productivity, decomposition, energy flow, and nutrient cycling are
the four important components of an ecosystem. Primary productivity
is the rate of capture of solar energy or biomass production of the
producers. It is divided into two types: gross primary productivity (GPP)
and net primary productivity (NPP). Rate of capture of solar energy or
total production of organic matter is called as GPP. NPP is the remaining
biomass or the energy left after utilisation of producers. Secondary
productivity is the rate of assimilation of food energy by the consumers.
In decomposition, complex organic compounds of detritus are converted
to carbon dioxide, water and inorganic nutrients by the decomposers.
Decomposition involves three processes, namely fragmentation of
detritus, leaching and catabolism.
Energy flow is unidirectional. First, plants capture solar energy
and then, food is transferred from the producers to decomposers.
Organisms of different trophic levels in nature are connected to each
other for food or energy relationship forming a food chain. The storage
and movement of nutrient elements through the various components
of the ecosystem is called nutrient cycling; nutrients are repeatedly
used through this process. Nutrient cycling is of two types—gaseous
and sedimentary. Atmosphere or hydrosphere is the reservoir for the
gaseous type of cycle (carbon), whereas Earth’s crust is the reservoir
for sedimentary type (phosphorus). Products of ecosystem processes
are named as ecosystem services, e.g., purification of air and water by
forests.
The biotic community is dynamic and undergoes changes with the
passage of time. These changes are sequentially ordered and constitute
ecological succession. Succession begins with invasion of a bare lifeless
area by pioneers which later pave way for successors and ultimately a
stable climax community is formed. The climax community remains
stable as long as the environment remains unchanged.
EXERCISES
- Fill in the blanks.
(a) Plants are called as_________because they fix carbon dioxide.
(b) In an ecosystem dominated by trees, the pyramid (of numbers)
is_________type.
(c) In aquatic ecosystems, the limiting factor for the productivity
is_________.
(d) Common detritivores in our ecosystem are_________.
(e) The major reservoir of carbon on earth is_________.
- Which one of the following has the largest population in a food chain?
(a) Producers
(b) Primary consumers
(c) Secondary consumers
(d) Decomposers - The second trophic level in a lake is
(a) Phytoplankton
(b) Zooplankton
(c) Benthos
(d) Fishes - Secondary producers are
(a) Herbivores
(b) Producers
(c) Carnivores
(d) None of the above - What is the percentage of photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) in
the incident solar radiation?
(a) 100%
(b) 50 %
(c) 1-5%
(d) 2-10% - Distinguish between
(a) Grazing food chain and detritus food chain
(b) Production and decomposition
(c) Upright and inverted pyramid
(d) Food chain and Food web
(e) Litter and detritus
(f) Primary and secondary productivity - Describe the components of an ecosystem.
- Define ecological pyramids and describe with examples, pyramids of
number and biomass. - What is primary productivity? Give brief description of factors that affect
primary productivity. - Define decomposition and describe the processes and products of
decomposition. - Give an account of energy flow in an ecosystem.
- Write important features of a sedimentary cycle in an ecosystem.
- Outline salient features of carbon cycling in an ecosystem.