CONTENTS
Foreword iii
Unit 1 Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry 1
1.1 Importance of Chemistry 4
1.2 Nature of Matter 4
1.3 Properties of Matter and their Measurement 6
1.4 Uncertainty in Measurement 10
1.5 Laws of Chemical Combinations 14
1.6 Dalton’s Atomic Theory 16
1.7 Atomic and Molecular Masses 16
1.8 Mole Concept and Molar Masses 18
1.9 Percentage Composition 18
1.10 Stoichiometry and Stoichiometric Calculations 20
Unit 2 Structure of Atom 29
2.1 Discovery of Sub-atomic Particles 30
2.2 Atomic Models 32
2.3 Developments Leading to the Bohr’s Model of Atom 37
2.4 Bohr’s Model for Hydrogen Atom 46
2.5 Towards Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom 49
2.6 Quantum Mechanical Model of Atom 53
Unit 3 Classification of Elements and Periodicity in Properties 74
3.1 Why do we Need to Classify Elements ? 74
3.2 Genesis of Periodic Classification 75
3.3 Modern Periodic Law and the present form of the Periodic Table 79
3.4 Nomenclature of Elements with Atomic Numbers > 100 79
3.5 Electronic Configurations of Elements and the Periodic Table 82
3.6 Electronic Configurations and Types of Elements: 83
s-, p-, d-, f- Blocks
3.7 Periodic Trends in Properties of Elements
Unit 4 Chemical Bonding and Molecular Structure 100
4.1 Kössel-Lewis Approach to Chemical Bonding 101
4.2 Ionic or Electrovalent Bond 106
4.3 Bond Parameters 107
4.4 The Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) Theory 112
4.5 Valence Bond Theory 117
4.6 Hybridisation 120
4.7 Molecular Orbital Theory 125
4.8 Bonding in Some Homonuclear Diatomic Molecules 129
4.9 Hydrogen Bonding 131
Unit 5 States of Matter 136
5.1 Intermolecular Forces 137
5.2 Thermal Energy 139
5.3 Intermolecular Forces vs Thermal Interactions 139
5.4 The Gaseous State 139
5.5 The Gas Laws 140
5.6 Ideal Gas Equation 145
5.7 Kinetic Energy and Molecular Speeds 147
5.8 Kinetic Molecular Theory of Gases 149
5.9 Behaviour of Real Gases: Deviation from Ideal Gas Behaviour 150
5.10 Liquefaction of Gases 152
5.11 Liquid State 154
Unit 6 Thermodynamics 160
6.1 Thermodynamic Terms 161
6.2 Applications 164
6.3 Measurement of ∆U and ∆H: Calorimetry 169
6.4 Enthalpy Change, ∆rH of a Reaction – Reaction Enthalpy 171
6.5 Enthalpies for Different Types of Reactions 176
6.6 Spontaneity 181
6.7 Gibbs Energy Change and Equilibrium 186
Unit 7 Equilibrium 192
7.1 Equilibrium in Physical Processes 193
7.2 Equilibrium in Chemical Processes – Dynamic Equilibrium 196
7.3 Law of Chemical Equilibrium and Equilibrium Constant 198
7.4 Homogeneous Equilibria 201
7.5 Heterogeneous Equilibria 203
7.6 Applications of Equilibrium Constants 205
7.7 Relationship between Equilibrium Constant K, 208
Reaction Quotient Q and Gibbs Energy G
7.8 Factors Affecting Equilibria 208
7.9 Ionic Equilibrium in Solution 212
7.10 Acids, Bases and Salts 213
7.11 Ionization of Acids and Bases 216
7.12 Buffer Solutions 226
7.13 Solubility Equilibria of Sparingly Soluble Salts 228
Appendices 239
Answer to some Selected Questions 253
Index 259
Unit 8 Redox Reactions 263
8.1 Classical Idea of Redox Reactions-Oxidation and Reduction Reactions 263
8.2 Redox Reactions in Terms of Electron Transfer Reactions 265
8.3 Oxidation Number 267
8.4 Redox Reactions and Electrode Processes 277
Unit 9 Hydrogen 284
9.1 Position of Hydrogen in the Periodic Table 284
9.2 Dihydrogen, H2
285
9.3 Preparation of Dihydrogen, H2
286
9.4 Properties of Dihydrogen 286
9.5 Hydrides 288
9.6 Water 289
9.7 Hydrogen Peroxide (H2O2
) 293
9.8 Heavy Water, D2O 294
9.9 Dihydrogen as a Fuel 294
Unit 10 The s-Block Elements 299
10.1 Group 1 Elements: Alkali Metals 300
10.2 General Characteristics of the Compounds of the Alkali Metals 303
10.3 Anomalous Properties of Lithium 304
10.4 Some Important Compounds of Sodium 304
10.5 Biological Importance of Sodium and Potassium 306
10.6 Group 2 Elements : Alkaline Earth Metals 306
10.7 General Characteristics of Compounds of the Alkaline Earth Metals 309
10.8 Anomalous Behaviour of Beryllium 310
10.9 Some Important Compounds of Calcium 310
10.10 Biological Importance of Magnesium and Calcium 312
Unit 11 The p-Block Elements 315
11.1 Group 13 Elements: The Boron Family 317
11.2 Important Trends and Anomalous Properties of Boron 320
11.3 Some Important Compounds of Boron 320
11.4 Uses of Boron and Aluminium and their Compounds 322
11.5 Group 14 Elements: The Carbon Family 322
11.6 Important Trends and Anomalous Behaviour of Carbon 325
11.7 Allotropes of Carbon 325
11.8 Some Important Compounds of Carbon and Silicon 327
Unit 12 Organic Chemistry – Some Basic Principles and Techniques 334
12.1 General Introduction 334
12.2 Tetravalence of Carbon: Shapes of Organic Compounds 335
12.3 Structural Representations of Organic Compounds 336
12.4 Classification of Organic Compounds 339
12.5 Nomenclature of Organic Compounds 340
12.6 Isomerism 348
12.7 Fundamental Concepts in Organic Reaction Mechanism 349
12.8 Methods of Purification of Organic Compounds 356
12.9 Qualitative Analysis of Organic Compounds 362
12.10 Quantitative Analysis 363
Unit 13 Hydrocarbons 373
13.1 Classification 373
13.2 Alkanes 374
13.3 Alkenes 384
13.4 Alkynes 392
13.5 Aromatic Hydrocarbon 396
13.6 Carcinogenicity and Toxicity 403
Unit 14 Environmental Chemistry 406
14.1 Environmental Pollution 406
14.2 Atmospheric Pollution 407
14.3 Water Pollution 414
14.4 Soil Pollution 416
14.5 Industrial Waste 417
14.6 Strategies to control Environmental Pollution 418
14.7 Green Chemistry 419
Answers 423
Index 427
CONTENTS
FOREWORD v
PREFACE vii
Unit 1 The Solid State 1
1.1 General Characteristics of Solid State 2
1.2 Amorphous and Crystalline Solids 2
1.3 Classification of Crystalline Solids 4
1.4 Crystal Lattices and Unit Cells 7
1.5 Number of Atoms in a Unit Cell 12
1.6 Close Packed Structures 14
1.7 Packing Efficiency 20
1.8 Calculations Involving Unit Cell Dimensions 22
1.9 Imperfections in Solids 24
1.10 Electrical Properties 26
1.11 Magnetic Properties 29
Unit 2 Solutions 35
2.1 Types of Solutions 35
2.2 Expressing Concentration of Solutions 36
2.3 Solubility 39
2.4 Vapour Pressure of Liquid Solutions 43
2.5 Ideal and Non-ideal Solutions 47
2.6 Colligative Properties and Determination of Molar Mass 49
2.7 Abnormal Molar Masses 57
Unit 3 Electrochemistry 65
3.1 Electrochemical Cells 66
3.2 Galvanic Cells 67
3.3 Nernst Equation 70
3.4 Conductance of Electrolytic Solutions 75
3.5 Electrolytic Cells and Electrolysis 85
3.6 Batteries 88
3.7 Fuel Cells 90
3.8 Corrosion 91
Unit 4 Chemical Kinetics 95
4.1 Rate of a Chemical Reaction 96
4.2 Factors Influencing Rate of a Reaction 100
4.3 Integrated Rate Equations 105
4.4 Temperature Dependence of the Rate of a Reaction 112
4.5 Collision Theory of Chemical Reactions 116
Unit 5 Surface Chemistry 123
5.1 Adsorption 124
5.2 Catalysis 129
5.3 Colloids 136
5.4 Classification of Colloids 136
5.5 Emulsions 145
5.6 Colloids Around Us 145
Unit 6 General Principles and Processes of Isolation of
Elements 149
6.1 Occurrence of Metals 152
6.2 Concentration of Ores 153
6.3 Extraction of Crude Metal from Concentrated Ore 155
6.4 Thermodynamic Principles of Metallurgy 156
6.5 Electrochemical Principles of Metallurgy 162
6.6 Oxidation Reduction 163
6.7 Refining 164
6.8 Uses of Aluminium, Copper, Zinc and Iron 166
Unit 7 The p-Block Elements 170
7.1 Group 15 Elements 170
7.2 Dinitrogen 174
7.3 Ammonia 175
7.4 Oxides of Nitrogen 177
7.5 Nitric Acid 179
7.6 Phosphorus – Allotropic Forms 180
7.7 Phosphine 181
7.8 Phosphorus Halides 182
7.9 Oxoacids of Phosphorus 184
7.10 Group 16 Elements 185
7.11 Dioxygen 189
7.12 Simple Oxides 190
7.13 Ozone 191
7.14 Sulphur – Allotropic Forms 192
7.15 Sulphur Dioxide 193
7.16 Oxoacids of Sulphur 194
7.17 Sulphuric Acid 195
7.18 Group 17 Elements 197
7.19 Chlorine 202
7.20 Hydrogen Chloride 204
7.21 Oxoacids of Halogens 205
7.22 Interhalogen Compounds 206
7.23 Group 18 Elements 208
Unit 8 The d-and f-Block Elements 215
8.1 Position in the Periodic Table 216
8.2 Electronic Configurations of the d-Block Elements 216
8.3 General Properties of the Transition Elements (d-Block) 218
8.4 Some Important Compounds of Transition Elements 231
8.5 The Lanthanoids 234
8.6 The Actinoids 237
8.7 Some Applications of d- and f-Block Elements 239
Unit 9 Coordination Compounds 244
9.1 Werner’s Theory of Coordination Compounds 244
9.2 Definitions of Some Important Terms Pertaining to 247
Coordination Compounds
9.3 Nomenclature of Coordination Compounds 248
9.4 Isomerism in Coordination Compounds 251
9.5 Bonding in Coordination Compounds 254
9.6 Bonding in Metal Carbonyls 261
9.7 Importance and Applications of Coordination 262
Compounds
Appendices 268
Answers to Some Questions in Exercises 281
Index 285
CONTENTS
FOREWORD iii
PREFACE V
Unit 10 Haloalkanes and Haloarenes 289
10.1 Classification 290
10.2 Nomenclature 291
10.3 Nature of C–X Bond 293
10.4 Methods of Preparation of Haloalkanes 294
10.5 Preparation of Haloarenes 296
10.6 Physical Properties 297
10.7 Chemical Reactions 299
10.8 Polyhalogen Compounds 317
Unit 11 Alcohols, Phenols and Ethers 323
11.1 Classification 324
11.2 Nomenclature 325
11.3 Structures of Functional Groups 328
11.4 Alcohols and Phenols 329
11.5 Some Commercially Important Alcohols 344
11.6 Ethers 345
Unit 12 Aldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids 357
12.1 Nomenclature and Structure of Carbonyl Group 358
12.2 Preparation of Aldehydes and Ketones 361
12.3 Physical Properties 365
12.4 Chemical Reactions 366
12.5 Uses of Aldehydes and Ketones 373
12.6 Nomenclature and Structure of Carboxyl Group 374
12.7 Methods of Preparation of Carboxylic Acids 375
12.8 Physical Properties 379
12.9 Chemical Reactions 379
12.10 Uses of Carboxylic Acids 384
Unit 13 Amines 389
13.1 Structure of Amines 389
13.2 Classification 390
13.3 Nomenclature 390
13.4 Preparation of Amines 392
13.5 Physical Properties 395
13.6 Chemical Reactions 396
13.7 Method of Preparation of Diazonium Salts 404
13.8 Physical Properties 405
13.9 Chemical Reactions 405
13.10 Importance of Diazonium Salts in Synthesis of 406
Aromatic Compounds
Unit 14 Biomolecules 411
14.1 Carbohydrates 411
14.2 Proteins 420
14.3 Enzymes 425
14.4 Vitamins 425
14.5 Nucleic Acids 427
14.6 Hormones 430
Unit 15 Polymers 433
15.1 Classification of Polymers 433
15.2 Types of Polymerisation Reactions 434
15.3 Molecular Mass of Polymers 442
15.4 Biodegradable Polymers 442
15.5 Polymers of Commercial Importance 443
Unit 16 Chemistry in Everyday Life 447
16.1 Drugs and their Classification 447
16.2 Drug-Target Interaction 448
16.3 Therapeutic Action of Different Classes of Drugs 451
16.4 Chemicals in Food 457
16.5 Cleansing Agents 458
Answers to Some Questions in Exercises 464
Index 469
